Table of Contents

• What is Fundamentalism?
• Historical Origins
• Sociological Theories of Fundamentalism
• Globalization and the Rise of Fundamentalism
• Fundamentalism and Gender
• Fundamentalism and Education
• Violence and Fundamentalism
• Contemporary Examples
• Conclusion

Fundamentalism is a complex, dynamic, and multifaceted phenomenon that has played a pivotal role in shaping contemporary societies across religious, political, and cultural domains. While it is often popularly associated with religious extremism, sociologists understand fundamentalism as a broader construct that includes patterns of belief, institutional practices, group identity formation, and collective responses to social, economic, and political transformations. This article provides an accessible yet rigorous overview suitable for undergraduate students, offering a sociological perspective on the origins, core features, theoretical interpretations, and global manifestations of fundamentalism.

What is Fundamentalism?

Fundamentalism refers to a form of ideological rigidity characterized by strict adherence to a perceived foundational truth, often framed as eternal, inerrant, and non-negotiable. While originally emerging in religious contexts, sociological scholarship interprets fundamentalism through its social functions and structural dynamics rather than its theological content. Fundamentalist movements are frequently positioned as reactive—mobilizing in response to perceived threats posed by modernity, secularism, pluralism, and moral relativism.

Fundamentalism tends to exhibit several interrelated characteristics:

• Absolutism: A belief in an unalterable and divine truth, often grounded in scripture or ideology, and resistant to reinterpretation.
• Dualism: A worldview structured around sharp binaries—good versus evil, sacred versus profane, insiders versus outsiders.
• Authoritarianism: A pronounced emphasis on hierarchical authority structures, obedience to charismatic or institutional leaders, and rigid moral codes.
• Opposition to Pluralism: An aversion to cultural and ideological diversity, favoring a homogenous worldview perceived as morally superior.
• Millenarianism or Apocalypticism: Belief in an impending cataclysm or spiritual reckoning that will affirm the group’s values and reorder society.
• Selective Modernism: While ostensibly rejecting modernity, fundamentalist groups may strategically adopt modern technologies and techniques to further their goals.

Historical Origins

The Religious Roots

The term “fundamentalism” first appeared in early 20th-century American Protestantism, particularly with the publication of The Fundamentals (1910–1915), a twelve-volume set of essays defending traditional Christian doctrines against theological liberalism, Darwinian evolution, and secular rationalism. This movement was characterized by scriptural literalism, evangelism, and a resistance to modernist interpretations of Christianity.

However, sociologists have since applied the concept more broadly to encompass fundamentalist tendencies across various religious traditions. These include:

• Islamic fundamentalism: Movements such as Wahhabism and Salafism emphasize a return to the practices of the Prophet and early Islamic community, often rejecting Western cultural influences.
• Jewish fundamentalism: Groups such as Haredi (ultra-Orthodox) communities and nationalist movements like Gush Emunim advocate strict adherence to Halakhic law and often hold ethno-religious territorial claims.
• Hindu fundamentalism: The ideology of Hindutva, associated with groups like the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), seeks to define Indian national identity in exclusively Hindu terms.
• Buddhist fundamentalism: Movements in Myanmar and Sri Lanka have mobilized Buddhist identity against perceived threats from Muslim minorities, often with nationalist overtones.

Secular and Political Fundamentalism

Fundamentalism is not confined to religious ideologies. Secular and political ideologies can also assume fundamentalist characteristics when they exhibit inflexibility, moral absolutism, and intolerance of dissent. Notable examples include:

• Totalitarian regimes: Stalinism and Maoism implemented ideologically rigid systems that suppressed pluralism and enforced absolute loyalty to the state.
• Nationalist populism: Right-wing movements in Europe and the Americas often frame multiculturalism and liberal values as existential threats, promoting a purist vision of national identity.
• Revolutionary ideologies: Movements across the political spectrum can become fundamentalist when they sacralize their doctrine and reject compromise.

Sociological Theories of Fundamentalism

Structural Functionalism

From a structural functionalist lens, fundamentalism can be understood as a response to societal instability. In periods of rapid transformation—such as industrialization, globalization, or postcolonial transition—individuals and communities may gravitate toward fundamentalist ideologies to restore a sense of order, belonging, and moral certainty.

• Fundamentalism offers a clear set of rules and roles.
• It fosters collective identity and social integration.
• It stabilizes norms amid cultural or moral ambiguity.

Conflict Theory

Conflict theorists emphasize the role of social inequality and power dynamics in the emergence of fundamentalism. Marginalized or subaltern groups may adopt fundamentalist ideologies to resist hegemonic forces, assert identity, and reclaim cultural or political space.

• Fundamentalism can be a form of cultural resistance.
• It critiques elite dominance and Western hegemony.
• It mobilizes collective action against perceived structural injustice.

Symbolic Interactionism

This perspective focuses on how fundamentalist identities are constructed and sustained through everyday interactions, rituals, and meaning-making practices. Symbols—such as religious texts, clothing, or dietary laws—function as markers of group affiliation and reinforce social boundaries.

• Identity is performed and reinforced through ritual.
• Insider/outsider distinctions are symbolically encoded.
• Language and narratives shape members’ lived realities.

Post-Structural and Postmodern Theories

Post-structuralist theorists challenge essentialist views of fundamentalism, instead framing it as a discursive formation embedded in broader power relations. Fundamentalism, in this view, is not pre-modern but a thoroughly modern response to the crises of modernity.

• Fundamentalist discourse is produced through mechanisms of power/knowledge.
• Media and global institutions co-construct the fundamentalist “Other.
• Fundamentalism mirrors the very modern rationalities it critiques, such as rationalization, control, and systemic order.

Globalization and the Rise of Fundamentalism